. exploring the esoteric in nara buddhism 779
to recite from memory. Thus, they offer evidence of the sūtras studied
and the prevalence of dhāraṇī recitation. Horiike Shunpō, in a study
of some fifty-three kōshinge letters, has shown that dhāraṇīs to esoteric
deities such as the eleven-faced, thousand-armed and the Amoghapāśa
(Fukū Kenjaku) manifestations of Kannon Bodhisattva appear fre-
quently (Horiike 1960, 29).
A similar study by Yoshida Yasuo of kōshinge letters written during
the early-middle decades of the eighth century reveals that six of the
twelve most popular sūtras were esoteric and promote the merit and
practice of dhāraṇī worship to the deities mentioned above (Yoshida
Yasuo 1988, 155–65). According to both Horiike and Yoshida, it
was the perceived healing powers of the dhāraṇīs, in particular, that
enhanced their appeal. Other sources, such as the Continued History
of Japan (Shoku nihongi) compiled by Emperor Kammu in 797 and
the Miraculous Episodes of Good and Evil Karmic Effects in the Nation
of Japan (Nihonkoku zen’aku genpō ryōiki), highlight specially trained
priests conducting healing rituals through the power of dhāraṇī incan-
tations (Abé 1999, 160–61).
We also know that there were frequent performances of keka or
repentance rites, imbued with esoteric elements, during the late Nara
and early Heian periods. Often conducted at imperial request, these
rites were dedicated to deities such as Mañjuśrī, Laksmī, Amitābha, ̣
and others. Yamagishi Tsuneto documents at least fifty-six occasions
between 736 and 785 when such rites were performed. For example,
in 744 Emperor Shōmu ordered the nation to perform a keka rite
dedicated to Bhaisajyaguru (Yakushi Nyorai), the Medicine Buddha, ̣
for seven days and nights to prevent the spread of an epidemic (Abé
1999, 163).
Finally, a review of doctrinal and scriptural studies reveals that the
two main esoteric sūtras, the Mahāvairocana sūtra (Dainichikyō) and
the Vajraśekhara sūtra (Kongōchōkyō) were used widely within the
Nara establishment. By the end of the Nara period, the Mahāvairocana
was increasingly used in memorial services, and both sūtras were often
copied and studied regularly (Abé 2004, 113). In addition to these
texts, others that advocate esoteric practices such as dhāraṇī recita-
tion, mudrās, and contemplative methods in the pursuit of the highest
realization of bodhisattvahood were also copied and studied regularly.
Examples include the Konkōmyō kyō, the Daihannya kyō, the Senju
sengen shinju kyō, and the Jūichimen shinju shinkyō mentioned above
(Abé 2004, 139).