oughts, values or principles as valid differs from recognition of
persons in various ways—for one thing, the former do not have a
self-relation and are not able experience misrecognition, like persons
are.’^61 Although reasons and values do not react to the acknowledge-
ment, Laitinen thinks that their social acceptance is important and
ascribes normativity to them.^62 In this manner, norms, principles,
rules, claims, reasons, and values are acknowledged as valid, good,
genuine, and so on.^63 This description of acknowledgement resembles
the adequate regard insight discussed above. People are recognized by
people, by employing the attitudes of love, respect, and esteem.
Heikki Ikäheimo’s new monograph on recognition is a systematic
attempt to understand some theorists (Fichte, Hegel, Taylor, Honneth,
and Fraser) using the tools of analytical philosophy. Like Laitinen,
Ikäheimo considers that one is well advised to distinguish between
recognition as (i) identification, (ii) acknowledgement, and (iii) recog-
nition of persons. While (i) allows almost anything as its object, (ii)
concerns norms and reasons, and (iii) remains restricted to people.
He considers (iii) to be the standard meaning for philosophical
elaboration, as recognition can be usefully understood as a response
to personhood.^64 In other words, the recognizer responds to the
personhood of the recognizee in ways that can vary considerably.
With the help of an analysis of Hegel and other theorists, Ikäheimo
presents a taxonomy of‘recognition of persons’as follows: a vertical
recognition can proceed either (1a) upward or (1b) downward.
A horizontal recognition can be either (2a) institutionally mediated
or (2b) purely intersubjective. Purely intersubjective recognition may
be of varying kinds: axiological as (3a) love or (3b) concern for well-
being; deontological as (3c) attribution of authority or (3d) respect;
contributive as (3e) instrumental valuing or (3f) gratitude.^65
Although Ikäheimo does not discuss religion, his taxonomy is
helpful in analysing religious texts. People recognizing God exemplify
an upward recognition, God recognizing people exemplifies a down-
ward one. The complex phrases that express a recognition of facts,
(^61) Laitinen 2011, 328–9. (^62) Laitinen 2011 331.
(^63) So Ikäheimo & Laitinen 2007, 36.
(^64) Ikäheimo 2014, 7–27. I am indebted to Heikki Ikäheimo for providing an
English manuscript of his book. While I am following its terminology, the page
numbers refer to the published German edition.
(^65) Ikäheimo 2014, 211.
Introduction 19