Endnotes A373 7. For examples of this argument, see Thomas Patterson, The
Vanishing Voter (New York: Knopf, 2002), and Jules Witcover,
No Way to Pick a President: How Money and Hired Guns Have
Debased American Politics (London: Routledge, 2001).
3 8. Richard Adams, “US Midterm Elections 2010: The 10
Worst Political Ads,” The Guardian, November 2, 2010, www
.theguardian.com/world/richard-adams-blog/2010/nov/02/
us-midterm-elections-2010-top-10-worst-political-ads
(10/24/18).
3 9. Paul Freeman, Michael Franz, and Kenneth Goldstein,
“Campaign Advertising and Democratic Citizenship,”
American Journal of Political Science 48 (2004): 723–41.
4 0. Constantine J. Spilotes and Lynn Vavreck, “Campaign
Advertising: Partisan Convergence or Divergence?,” Journal of
Politics 64 (2002): 249 –61.
4 1. Kathleen Hall Jameson, Packaging the Presidency: A History
and Criticism of Presidential Campaign Advertising (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1996).
4 2. Steven Ansolabehere and Shanto Iyengar, Going Negative: How
Political Advertisements Shrink and Polarize the Electorate (New
York: Free Press, 1997); Richard Lau, Lee Sigelman, Caroline
Heldman, and Paul Babbitt, “The Effects of Negative Political
Advertisements: A Meta-analytic Analysis,” American Political
Science Review 93 (1999): 851–70.
4 3. Jonathan Krasno and Frank J. Sorauf, “For the Defense,”
Political Science and Politics 37 (2004): 777–80.
4 4. Contribution and spending data are available from the Center
for Responsive Politics at http://www.opensecrets.org.
4 5. Brian Stelter, “The Price of 30 Seconds,” New York Times,
October 1, 2007, http://mediadecoder.blogs.nytimes.
com/2007/10/01/the-price-of-30-seconds (accessed
10/19/12).
4 6. For a review of this literature, see Michael Malbin, The Election
after Reform: Money, Politics, and the Bipartisan Campaign
Reform Act (Washington, DC: Rowman & Littlefield, 2006).
4 7. Lynda Powell, The Influence of Campaign Contributions in State
Legislatures (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2012).
4 8. David Karol, “If You Think Super PACS Have Changed Everything
about Presidential Primaries, Think Again,” 2015, www
.washingtonpost.com/blogs/monkey-cage/wp/2015/09/21/
if-you-think-super-pacs-have-changed-everything-about-the-
presidential-primary-think-again (accessed 9/21/15).
4 9. For a discussion, see Patterson, The Vanishing Voter, especially
Chapter 1, “The Incredible Shrinking Electorate,” pp. 3–22.
5 0. William H. Riker and Peter Ordeshook, “A Theory of the
Calculus of Voting,” American Political Science Review 62
(1968): 25–39.
5 1. Michael McDonald, The United States Elections Project,
http://www.electproject.org (accessed 5/11/18).
5 2. Pew Research Center, “Regular Voters, Intermittent Voters,
and Those Who Don’t,” October 18, 2006, http://www.people-press.
org/files/legacy-pdf/292.pdf (accessed 7/29/16).
5 3. For a review of the literature on issue voters, see Jon K. Dalager,
“Voters, Issues, and Elections: Are Candidates’ Messages
Getting Through?,” Journal of Politics 58 (1996): 486–515.
5 4. Richard P. Lau and David P. Redlawsk, How Voters Decide:
Information Processing during Electoral Campaigns (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 2006).
5 5. Samuel Popkin, The Reasoning Voter (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1991).
5 6. Richard R. Lau and David P. Redlawsk, “Advantages and
Disadvantages of Cognitive Heuristics in Political Decision
Ma k i n g,” American Journal of Political Science 45 (2001): 951–71.Chapter 10
1. U.S. Department of Education, “U.S. Department of Education
Announces Opportunity for Federal Student Loan Borrowers
to be Reconsidered for Public Service Loan Forgiveness,” May
23, 2018, http://www.ed.gov/news/press-releases/us-department-
education-announces-opportunity-federal-student-loan-
borrowers-be-reconsidered-public-service-loan-forgiveness
(accessed 6/5/18).
2. Robert A. Dahl, A Preface to Democratic Theory (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1951) and Who Governs? Democracy
and Power in an American City (New Haven, CT: Yale University
Press, 1961); David Truman, The Governmental Process (New
York: Harper and Row, 1951).
3. Theodore Lowi, The End of Liberalism: The Second Republic
of the United States (New York: W. W. Norton, 1979). E. E.
Schattschneider, The Semisovereign People: A Realist’s View of
Democracy in America (Hinsdale, IL: Dryden Press, 1975).
4. Frank R. Baumgartner, Jeffrey M. Berry, Marie Hojnacki, David
C. Kimball, and Beth L. Leech, Lobbying and Policy Change:
Who Wins, Who Loses, and Why (Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 2009).
5. Lobbying regulations are often changed; the discussion
here is just a general guide. For a summary of federal law, see
“Lobbying Disclosure Act Guidance,” Office of the Clerk,
U.S. House of Representatives, January 31, 2017, https://
lobbyingdisclosure.house.gov/amended_lda_ guide.html; for
state law, see Lobbying Regulation, National Conference of
State Legislatures, http://www.ncsl.org/research/ethics/lobbyist-
regulation.aspx (accessed 6/5/18).
6. Nadja Popovich, Livia Albeck-Ripka, and Kendra Pierre-Louis,
“67 Environmental Rules on the Way Out Under Trump,”
New York Times, January 31, 2018, http://www.nytimes.com/
interactive/2017/10/05/climate/trump-environment-rules-
reversed.html (accessed 6/5/18).
7. Frank Baumgartner and Beth Leech, Basic Interests: The
Importance of Interest Groups in Politics and in Political
Science (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1999), p.
109.
8. Beth L. Leech, Frank R. Baumgartner, Timothy M. La Pira, and
Nicholas A. Semanko, “Drawing Lobbyists to Washington:
Government Activity and the Demand for Advocacy,” Political
Research Quarterly 58: 1 (March 2005): 19–30.
9. Roxana Tiron, “Lockheed Martin Leads Expanded Lobbying
by US Defense Industry,” Washington Post, January 26,
2012, http://www.washingtonpost.com/business/economy/
lockheed-martin-leads-expanded-lobbying-by-us-defense-
industry/2012/01/26/gIQAlgQtaQ _story.html (accessed
2 /4 / 1 4 ).
1 0. Tim LaPira, Lee Drutman, and Matthew Grossmann, “The
Interest Group Top Tier: More Groups, Concentrated Clout,”
paper presented at the 2014 American Political Science
Association Annual Meeting.
1 1. Ranked Sectors, Center for Responsive Politics, http://www.
opensecrets.org/lobby/top.php?indexType=c&showYear
=2018 (accessed 6/5/18).
1 2. For more on this argument, see Tim Harford, “There’s
Not Enough Money in Politics,” Slate, April 1, 2006, http://www.
slate.com/id/2138874 (accessed 7/29/16); and Stephen
Ansolabehere, John M. de Figueiredo, and James M. Snyder,
“Why Is There So Little Money in American Politics?,” Journal
of Economic Perspectives 17 (2003): 105–30.
1 3. Scott Ainsworth, Analyzing Interest Groups: Group Influence on
People and Policies (New York: W. W. Norton, 2002).Full_20_APT_64431_END_A23-A54.indd 37 15/11/18 2:38 PM