I-4 INDEX
Charters of liberties, 39
Chavín culture, 30
Checks and balances: in Spanish colonial
administration, 97–98; in Brazil, 129
Chiapas: Maya frescoes in, 21, 21 (illus.)
Chibcha people (Colombia), 10, 71
Chicama Revolt (1851), 229
Chichén Itzá, 18, 19
Chichimec people, 23, 68, 105
Chiefdoms, 9–10, 13
Chiefs, native, 98
Childbirth: Aztec, 27
Child labor: in Brazil, 265
Children of the Sun. See Inca civilization
Chile, 71, 212–216; as captaincy
general, 145; revolt in, 153;
independence of, 167; San Martín
and, 167; government of, 212;
politics in, 212–213, 255–260;
economy in, 213–214, 255–260;
labor in, 215; attacks on Peru by,
231; development in, 244–245;
War of the Pacific and, 255–256;
reforms in, 258; voting in, 258;
foreign economic domination in,
260; Parliamentary Republic in,
260; working class in, 260. See also
Constitutions; specific leaders
Chilean-Bolivian war (1879), 256
Chilpancingo, 174
Chimu empire (Peru), 30
China: trade with, 55, 91
Chinampas (Aztec gardens), 23, 26, 27
Chinese immigrants: as coolies in Peru,
229; bondage labor of, 245
Chirinos, José Leonardo, 236 (illus.)
Cholera epidemic: in Central America
(1837), 217
Cholula, 24, 65
Choquehanca, Diego, 156
Christianity: in Spanish Visigothic
kingdom, 36; Spanish Reconquest
and, 38–39; papal grant to Castile for
conversion and, 78
Christophe, Henri, 160
Church: and education, 106–108;
decline in influence of, 189;
confiscation of church lands, 245,
266.See also Catholic Church;
Religion
Cid (Ruy Díaz de Vivar), 38
Científicos: in Mexico, 249–251
Cieza de León, Pedro, 68–69, 73
Cigarettes, 141, 142
Cigars, 141, 142
Cinco de Mayo de 1862 (Mexico), 204
Cipangu.See Japan
Circum-Caribbean area chiefdoms, 10
Circumnavigation of globe, 61
Cisneros, Cardinal, 101
Cities: of Maya, 18; in Castile, 39; in
Spain, 41; lifestyle in, 116–118;
wealth in, 117; in Brazil, 134, 263;
in Venezuela, 269
Civil code: Chile, 215
Civilianist Party (Peru), 230–231
Civilizations: as state level of
organization, 10; of Ancient
America, 11; of Nuclear America,
12–14; early American, 14–17;
of Peru, 29–30; Conquest as end
of indigenous, 57. See also specific
civilizations
Civil war: in Peru, 229
Class, 19; monarch’s fear of seigneurial, 5;
Aztec, 28; ruling, 110–111; in Indies,
110–121; in Brazil, 131–133; mestizo
and mulatto families and, 150–151;
voting and, 195; hierarchical social
structure and, 196; in republican
Brazil, 263; in Nicaragua, 267. See
also Castes; Elites; Social stratification;
specific classes
Classic Maya society. See Maya Classic
civilization
Classic period, 13; end of, 13;
Teotihuacán in, 15
Clavigero, Francisco Javier, 148, 149
Clearance certificates, 141
Clergy: in Spain, 42; reformist, 101–102;
secularvs. regular, 103–104;
American-bornvs. peninsular, 104;
moral laxity of, 104–105; moral
decline of, 104–106; influence
of, 136; Jesuit intellectuals and,
148; privileges of, 196; Juárez and,
203.See also Catholic Church;
Missionaries; specific individuals
Climate: after Ice Age, 8; in Glacial ages,
8; in Peru, 9
Closed-port policy, 91
Clothing: of Maya, 19; Aztec, 26;
European style of dress, 186, 187
(illus.)
Coal, 214
Coastal society, in Peru, 229
Coatsworth, John, 94n, 140
Cochineal (dye), 87, 266
Cochrane, Thomas, Lord, 168
Codices, of Maya, 21
Coelho, Duarte, 124
Coercion: by state, 10; in colonial labor
systems, 83
Coffee industry, 138; in Brazil, 127,
222, 227–228, 261, 264; in Central
America, 217; in Venezuela, 238; in
Guatemala, 266; in El Salvador, 267;
in Nicaragua, 267; in Colombia, 270Coffee Plantation (Portiniari), 179 (illus.)
Cole, Jeffrey, 152
Colegio de Santa Cruz (Mexico), 103
Colegios (secondary schools), 104
Colombia, 61, 71, 137; chiefdoms in, 10;
liberation of, 165–166; freedom of,
166; New Granada-Venezuela union
and, 166; Panama and, 216n; as
Gran Colombia, 235–243; economy
in, 240, 270–272; church lands
confiscated in, 245; government of,
270–272; politics in, 270–272
Colonial caste society, 180
Colonial era: sexuality in, 118–121. See
also Social order, in colonial era
Colonial Latin America, 4; education,
106–108
“Colonial subversive discourse,” 108
Colonies and colonization: in Pleistocene
period, 8; by Inca, 31, 33; da Gama
and, 53–54; Madeira Islands as,
54; Columbus and, 61; autonomy
in, 89; commerce with, 91–92;
economy in, 93–94; Brazil and,
122–134, 123 (illus.); in Brazil’s
mining area, 126–127; culture in,
147–148; church in, 148; education
in, 148; society in transition in,
150–152; Establishment in, 159;
neocolonialism and, 244–247. See
also Portuguese America; Spanish
America
Colonos (farmers): in Peru, 228; in Cuba,
232
Color.See Skin color
Columbus, Bartholomew, 56
Columbus, Christopher: Spain in the time
of, 44; Hispaniola and, 55–56, 77;
voyages of, 55–56; assessment of, 60;
on indigenous peoples, 60; wealth
of, 60
Columbus, Ferdinand, 55
Comanches, 105
Commerce: in postclassic period, 14;
licensing of, 91; colonial system
of, 91–92; in Spanish colonies,
137–138; Bourbon reforms of, 138;
peninsular Spaniard control of, 158–
161; in Peru, 229. See also specific
countries
Commercial agriculture, 85–86, 89. See
also Agriculture
Commoners: Aztec, 24; Inca, 34;
indigenous, 114
Communal landholding system: of Inca,
32; usurpation by creole landlords,
176; in El Salvador, 267
Communication: between special units,
23; in Chile, 258–259