INDEX I-17
Seville, Spain, 41; Reconquest of, 38;
merchant oligarchy in, 91; merchant
monopoly of, 92
Seward, William H., 204
Sex and sexuality: marriage, women,
and, 118–121; double standard,
188
Sharecroppers: in Brazil, 133; in Peru,
228, 229–230; in Nicaragua, 267
Sheep, 39, 87
Ships and shipping: Spanish, 161
Sigüenza y Góngora, Carlos, 108
Silk industry, 85, 87, 91
Silva Xavier, José da, 134
Silver, 83; in Potosí, 88; sales tax on, 89;
trade of, 91; from Mexico, 140
Silverblatt, Irene, 33, 112
Silver mining, 88–90; labor for, 81, 142;
in Spanish colonies, 140
Simpson, Lesley B., 11
Siqueiros, David, 213
Skin color, in Brazil, 131–133
Slash-and-burn cultivation, 9, 10; of
Maya, 17, 18; of Aztecs, 27
Slaves and slavery: Aztec, 28;
Portuguese, 54; Columbus on, 60;
Arawaks as, 77; indigenous, 77;
encomienda and, 77–79; prohibition
against, 79; black, 81, 82–83,
115–116, 184; in making of Latin
America, 84 (illus.); in Americas,
116; in Brazil, 124, 125, 131–134,
132 (illus.), 169, 225–228, 260–
261; struggles for independence,
164; abolished in Venezuela, 165,
239; in 19th century, 185; in
Paraguay, 209; colonial legacy of,
219; coffee plantations and, 226
(illus.); in Peru, 229; in Western
Hemisphere, 229; in Cuba, 231,
232, 232 (illus.), 233; in Venezuela,
237–238; in Colombia, 240–241; in
late 1800s, 245; in Mexico, 250. See
also Slave trade
Slave trade, 57, 126; Portugal and,
53–54; Tainos sold in, 60; Spain and,
69, 232; Brazil and, 221; Cuba and,
231, 232
Slums, 117
Smallpox, 12, 69
Smith, Adam, 57
Smuggling: Dutch, 128; in Caribbean,
137; reducing, 137
Social Darwinism, 246
Social democrats, 265
Socialism: in Chile, 260; in Brazil, 265
Socialist Party: in Argentina, 255; in
Chile, 260
Social mobility, 150–151
Social order, in colonial era, 110–121;
ruling class, 110–111; mestizo
status, 111–112; indigenous peoples,
112; blacks, mulattos, and zambos,
115–116; major centers of social life,
116–118; marriage, sexuality, and
status of women, 118–121
Social reform: Morelos and, 173
Social stratification, 6, 9, 10, 13. See also
specific groups
Society: archaeological evidence of, 7–8,
11n; egalitarian, 9; before Spanish
conquest, 9; levels of organization of,
9–11; at time of Conquest, 11–12;
in stages of history, 13–14; of Peru,
29; of Inca, 29–35; Roman impact
on Spain, 36; class and caste in, 110–
121; Aztec, 112–115; in indigenous
towns, 115; haciendas and, 118;
in Brazil, 131–133; Brazilian estate
(fazenda) and, 133–134; in Spanish
colonies, 150–152; hierarchical
structure of, 196; in Cuba, 231–234;
in Colombia, 239. See also Aztecs;
Class; Creoles (American-born
Spaniards); Inca civilization; Maya
civilization; Organization; Stratified
society; Women; specific classes;
specific groups
Society of Equality (Chile), 214
Society of Jesus. See Jesuits
Soil: cultivation methods and, 8–9;
population crisis and, 12; erosion, 57
Solóranzo Pereira, Juan, 111
Song of Quetzalcóatl, 22
Sor Juana, Inés de la Cruz, 108, 109
(illus.), 120
Sousa, Affonso de, 122
Sousa, Tomé de, 128–129
South America: Andean civilizations in,
12–14; Vespucci and, 61; Spanish
frustrations in, 71; liberation of,
162–170; Bolívar, Simón, and, 163–
166, 163 (illus.). See also Central
America; Latin America; specific
countries
Southern liberation movement, 166–
169
South Sea Company (England), 137
Spain: conquistadors from, 4; climate
of violence and, 4–5; decline of, 6;
Germanic invasions of, 36; origins of
term, 36; writers of Latin literature
from, 36; conquest as historical
theme of, 36–37; multicultural
background of, 36–37, 37 (illus.);
Jews and, 37, 37 (illus.), 45–46;
Muslims in, 37–38; kingdoms in,
37–41; medieval period in, 37–41;Castile and, 38–39; nobility in,
40, 41; unification of, 41; under
Ferdinand and Isabella, 41–46;
foreign policy of, 43; in time of
Columbus, 44, 44 (illus.); religions
in, 45–46; Inquisition in, 46,
46 (illus.); Charles V in, 47–48;
Hapsburgs in, 47–51; Philip II in,
48–49; economic decline in, 49–50;
decadence in, 50; Columbus’ voyages
and, 55–56; Treaty of Tordesillas
and, 56; Mexico conquered by, 61–
66; expansion of conquest beyond
Mexico, 65–66; Peru conquered
by, 66–68; North America and, 69;
characteristics of conquistadors
and, 71–73; emigration of women
from, 73; legality of claim to Indies,
77; misfortunes of, 92–93; Portugal
annexed by, 106; possessions of,
135; silver mining and, 140; loyalty
to, 158; colonial conflicts with,
158–161; colonial revolutions and,
161–162; liberal revolt in, 174;
Mexican liberals and, 203; slave
trade ended in, 231; uses of Cuba by,
231.See also Ferdinand and Isabella
(Spain); specific regions
Spalding, Karen, 115
Spaniards: as headmen in Gauraní
society, 80; vs. creoles, 111
Spanish America: tribute and labor
in, 77–83; economy of, 83;
Spanish agriculture in, 86–88;
England and markets of, 92–93;
political institutions of, 95–100;
ineffectiveness of law in, 100; church
in, 100–110; Inquisition in, 106;
Portuguese America compared with,
129; centralization of, 137; Spanish
government in, 137; commerce
in, 137–138; economic activity in,
138–141; silver mining in, 140;
manufacturing in, 140–141; labor
struggles in, 142–143; territorial
reorganization of, 143–146; society
in transition in, 150–152; revolts by
oppressed peoples in, 152–157. See
also Colonies and colonization; Indies
Spanish Character: Attitudes and
Mentalities from the Sixteenth to the
Nineteenth Century (Bennassar), 4
Spanish Netherlands, 135
Specialization, 10
Speculation, land, 249
Spencer, Herbert, 246
Spice Islands, 69
Spices and spice trade: Portugal and,
53–54; Spanish search for, 71