592 henrik h. sørensen
empowers the stūpa. In other words, the empowerment is being effec-
tuated by placing a copy of the Sarvatathāgatādhiṣthānạ together with
a Buddha image inside it, which constitutes the transformation of the
stūpa into an actual “tower of power.”
The empowerment of stūpas was replicated in the making of Bud-
dhist images, which also underwent a ritual process in order to be
animated, i.e., to be ready to house the “spirit” of the divinity and
thereby be considered suitable and worthy of worship. Also, in this
case instructions were based on the Esoteric Buddhist scriptures used.
In the case of the Unified Silla it would appear that the practice of
empowering Buddhist images began in earnest during the early eighth
century.^55
Esoteric Buddhism: Its Art and Material Culture under the Silla
As mentioned above, the earliest traces of Esoteric Buddhism on the
Korean Peninsula belongs to material culture and can be found in the
form of vajra-yielding guardians (vajrapālas) and protectors carved
on the stone panels of pagodas and stūpas. Indra, Brahma, and the
Four Heavenly Kings occur frequently, as well as the eightfold group
of gods and dragons (ch’ŏnryong palbu ). Among these
Buddhist guardians we also find the twelve rakṣa generals, who form
Bhaisajyaguru’s retinue. Likewise, images of the twelve spirits of the ̣
zodiac carved in stone can be seen. In the Chinese translations of
Buddhist scriptures these minor gods are also associated with Esoteric
Buddhist practices, and their presence in the Silla Buddhist architec-
tural material would seem to indicate that they were accredited with
protective powers.^56
There has been some speculation as to the sectarian affiliation of the
Sŏkkuram sanctuary, the artificial Buddhist cave sanctuary on
Mt. T’oham above Pulguk Temple in Kyŏngju, completed in
750 C.E.; it could be a product of Esoteric Buddhism. However, the
general outline of the shrine as well as its iconography signals neither an
Esoteric Buddhist context nor affinity. The main Buddha in the shrine
the case with the copy of the Raśmivimalaviśuddhaprabhā from the Sŏkka Stūpa in
Pulguk Temple. 55
As far as can be ascertained, it was scriptures such as Śubhākarasiṃha’s trans-
lation of the Vajraśekhara sūtra, among others, that served as the basis for these
beliefs.
(^56) For examples, see Kyŏngju Pangmulgwan 1989, 150–151.