Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World

ning and to have become more so over time.) In order to keep this noncitizen population (known as helots) subjugated, Spartans d ...

of elected offi cials and, fi nally, of the emperor alone. (Th e word emperor comes from the Latin word imperium). THE REPUBLIC ...

the Comitia Plebis Tributa was called together by the ten Tri- buni Plebis, the Comitia Populi Tributa was convened by the offi ...

elected by the plebeians to defend the lives and property of plebeians. During the Republic 10 such tribunes were elected each y ...

and most of the new senators came from the provinces. Th ese new senators paid the treasury for the privilege of serving Rome, a ...

tions—meaning educated guesswork—derived from archae- ological data. With the exception of the Classic Maya (ca. 250–650 c.e.), ...

them. Chiefs usually govern from a large central settlement (population up to the thousands) that dominates surround- ing smalle ...

could be used to start fi res or refl ect images, no doubt under- lining the king’s powers as chief shaman. Some 20th-century ar ...

One interpretation seeks to reconcile this evidence of individual rulership with the lack of such evidence in the city’s art by ...

emonial earthworks, some of them of massive size. Th e large quantities of luxurious grave goods accompanying some mound burials ...

Lycurgos also provided for the continual cultivation of virtues even to old age, by fi xing the election to the council of elder ...

in all sacred matters; the whole city being, as it were, reduced to an exact equality, the nobles excelling the rest in honor, t ...

FURTHER READING A. S. Altekar, State and Government in Ancient India. (New Delhi, India: Motilal Banarsidass, 2001). Antony Andr ...

John Clark, “Mesoamerica Goes Public: Early Ceremonial Centers, Leaders, and Communities.” In Mesoamerican Archaeology, ed. Juli ...

...

545  ▶ health and disease introduction Many common themes run through discussions of health and disease in the ancient world. T ...

ceptions, non-Africans oft en think of the African continent as dark, dirty, and diseased. However, a detailed look at the pre- ...

social and cultural concerns. Th e diseases that affl icted hu- man inhabitants at the time were also a product of the physi- ca ...

thought to promote youthful skin. Th e washing of clothing was also frequent; a clean, white outfi t was the indication of high ...

ple and presumably operated from a corner shop in the street or from his home. Th e respective positions of these two health pro ...