A Concise History of the Middle East

226 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES the Bolsheviks renounced claims made on Istanbul and the Straits by previ¬ ...

Turkey: Phoenix from the Ashes ••• 227 tility toward the Young Turks had kept him from getting the positions or the power that h ...

228 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES protégés. Underestimating the will of Kemal's nationalist following, the A ...

Turkey: Phoenix from the Ashes ••• 229 talks to get instructions from his government. When the Lausanne peace¬ makers finished r ...

230 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES and joined with Muslim leaders to defend Turkey against the Greeks. Even i ...

Turkey: Phoenix from the Ashes ••• 231 Turkish culture experienced an even more drastic change at this time. Kemal announced tha ...

232 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES among Asia's first noncommunist leaders to call for state ownership and co ...

Turkey: Phoenix from the Ashes ••• 233 Mustafa Kemal Ataturk M ustafa Kemal (1881-1938) was born into a middle-class family in t ...

234 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES The Legacy of Kemalism The greatest tribute paid by the Turkish nation to ...

From Persia to Iran ••• 235 challenge took the form of the Justice Party, which won enough votes in the first election to enter ...

236 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES absorption process has led to a mosaic of tribal nomads and sedentary peas ...

From Persia to Iran ••• 237 The Apogee of British Power In 1919 Britain seemed ready to absorb Persia as it had most of the Arab ...

238 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES dismissal of all Russian officers left in the brigade. Reza, seeing how ea ...

From Persia to Iran ••• 239 Reza's Reforms Reza Shah was the regenerator of Persia, just as Kemal, whom he admired, was the fath ...

240 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES Strengthening Iran's national government could be achieved only by weakeni ...

From Persia to Iran ••• 241 Iran's fiscal administration in the 1920s but failed to attract American in¬ vestors, Reza made the ...

242 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES abroad and ulama at home stirred up opposition to the shah. They decried t ...

The Rise of Saudi Arabia • 243 centuries, the Saudis managed to spread their rule and Wahhabi doctrines to most of northern Arab ...

244 • 14 MODERNIZING RULERS IN THE INDEPENDENT STATES Sa'ud. The process involved many bedouin raids, battles, and wars be¬ twee ...

The Rise of Saudi Arabia • 245 1940s, Ibn Sa'ud was the Arabs' elder statesman. Although his Hashimite rivals in Transjordan and ...