Encyclopedia of Society and Culture in the Ancient World

of Horus. Recent excavations in the western Nile delta have identifi ed a parallel chain of forts that were presumably construct ...

from outside their borders. Th e Sassanian state (224–651 c.e.) in Persia is typical. When Shapur II led his expedition into Mes ...

Th ere were long periods of peace and a style of combat that remained constant over the centuries. ASIA AND THE PACIFIC BY KIRK ...

In 108 b.c.e. the Chinese established their fi rst Korean colony, the city of Lolang. From Lolang, Chinese customs fi l- tered t ...

the enemy. Enemy soldiers unable to protect their women suf- fered a loss of masculinity that aff ected morale. Conversely, the ...

at their own expense, and this restricted military service to those who possessed a minimum amount of property. Th e nucleus of ...

fortifi cation consisted of a simple vertical wall made of sun- dried brick on a stone foundation with square towers placed at v ...

became professionalized. Finally, the loyalty of the legions became detached from the state and focused on the various army comm ...

political rulership, and kingly responsibilities assumed a mili- tary quotient, as indicated by depictions of Olmec kings with b ...

IX. THE ARMY ON THE MARCH Sun Tzu said: We come now to the question of encamping the army, and observing signs of the enemy. Pa ...

When there is much running about and the soldiers fall into rank, it means that the critical moment has come. When some are see ...

so much for the sake of the enemy as to keep an eye on friends. Th e enemy is suffi ciently watched by mounted troopers perched ...

FURTHER READING Alfred S. Bradford, With Arrow, Sword, and Spear: A History of Warfare in the Ancient World (Westport, Conn.: Pr ...

▶ mining, quarrying, and salt making introduction Th roughout the ancient world people engaged in an endless quest for resources ...

some ironworkings from the same period have been found at Hydrax Hill, near Nakuru in Kenya. Some scholars believe that both the ...

Graywacke, a dark, varicolored, attractive stone, was ob- tained from Wadi Hammamat between Luxor and Quseir. Chephren diorite w ...

mummifi cation, was obtained from Wadi an-Natrūn, Be- heira Governorate, and the Elkab region in Upper Egypt. THE MIDDLE EAST BY ...

to work extremely hard to extract the ore—or at least their slaves and criminals did. Th e conditions of mining in the ancient w ...

the ores over charcoal fi res, heating them to temperatures that would draw out useful metals in a pure and usable form. Mining ...

Copper tools were better than the stone tools of the ear- lier Stone Age because copper can be hammered and molded into many dif ...