Encyclopedia of Islam

times), astronomy held a prominent place on the scientific scene. Rulers sponsored the construc- tion of observatories and large ...

ity, to non-Christian societies. Furthermore, and perhaps most importantly, disputes about the nature of secularism reflect diff ...

the expulsion in 1492, three categories of Jews had emerged: conversos (Sp., “converts”), mar- ranos (Sp., derogatory term for c ...

but must sit and pause briefly in between them. He should initiate both sermons with liturgical formulae of praise to God, the M ...

her son and daughter. However, in 1909 Shaarawi entered a new period of activism and leadership. She founded a secular women’s p ...

brotherhood and its offshoots, and so he kept them and their activities on a short leash. Much of this changed with the coming o ...

duties such as pilgrimage, prayer, and fasting. For example, al-Shadhili performed the hajj to mecca every two years, and he pro ...

soning because it was too arbitrary. Indeed, some rationalists wanted to bypass the hadith altogether. Instead, al-Shafii argued ...

1994); Wael B. Hallaq, The Origins and Evolution of Islamic Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005); Christopher Melch ...

by adding “Ali is the friend of God” (Ali wali Allah), which affirms their belief in the preeminence of ali ibn abi talib (d. 66 ...

Further reading: Moshe Gammer, Muslim Resistance to the Tsar: Shamil and the Conquest of Chechnia and Daghestan (London: Frank C ...

However, even in these countries, it is not the only law of the land. Creating governments exclusively based on the sharia is a ...

activities in France. After his release, he began teaching at the University of Mashhad. His lectures there quickly became popul ...

astray. Female Sufi leaders and spirit mediums are called by the feminine form of this word— shaykha. Since the 15th century, th ...

death, and Abu Bakr (r. 632–634) became the first caliph (successor to the Prophet) of the Muslim community. This consensual und ...

and they believe that the 12th Imam, mUham- mad al-mUntazar (b. 868), entered concealment as a boy in 874. His concealment will ...

persecution and also to facilitate their search for new converts, they practiced taqiyya, assuming Sunni, Twelve-Imam Shii, Sufi ...

against civilian and military targets began to be used by radical Shii groups at this time, which legitimated this tactic in ter ...

Idea of Idolatry and the Emergence of Islam: From Polemic to History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); Muhammad Ibr ...

Though his central concern was with Sufi thought on issues of religious renewal, prophecy, and sainthood, he is best known for a ...