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WATER AND ELECTROLYTE DISTURBANCES Hyponatraemia Definition: Hyponatraemia is a state where plasma sodium concentration is less ...

hypoosmolality owing to the fact that volume receptors are more potent than the osmoreceptors. Hypervolaemic (oedematous) Hypon ...

Clinical Features of Hyponatraemia: Manifestations of hyponatraemia depend greatly on the rate of its development. A very slowl ...

Hypernatraemia Hypernatraemia is considered when plasma sodium is more than 145 mmol/litre. Causes: Hypernatraemia is usually a ...

b. Renal tubular disease as in post obstructive diuresis, recovering ATN, PCKD, chronic tubulointerstitial nephritis, medullary ...

Usually the hypernatraemic patient is hypovolaemic, we can calculate the water deficit by the equation: Water deficit (litre)=Pl ...

A- Increased Potassium Intake Dietary excess (Banana, citrus fruits...) Intravenous load with K+ containing fluids Drugs contai ...

severe (GFR < 10ml/min) or when a defect in tubular excretion is present, as in salt-depletion, mineralocorticoid deficiency, ...

It includes the following: A- Immediate correction (Emergency) of hyperkalaemia 50 ml of I.V. 50% glucose+20 units soluble insu ...

The condition is considered medical emergency if ECG abnormalities are present. Beside the above therapeutic approaches, we must ...

Recovery phase of ATN or post-obstructive ARF Tubulotoxicity as cisplatin, amphotericin Diabetic hyperglycaemia B- Gastrointes ...

1- Muscle weakness especially proximal muscles. Tendon reflexes are depressed. In severe cases, muscle necrosis may occur. 2- Ga ...

IV. Disorders of Plasma Calcium Concentration Generally, the kidney, the gastrointestinal tract and the skeleton play a key role ...

1- Malignancy Multiple myeloma. • Boney metastasis Hormonal factors (PTH-like substance) secreted by tumour cells. 2- Hyperpara ...

Nausea and vomiting which are central effects of hypercalcaemia. These may aggravate dehydration induced by polyuria Peptic ulc ...

Diphosphonate will suppresses hypercalcaemia in hyperpara- thyroidism 4- Dialysis in renal failure especially on using low Ca2+ ...

2- Neuromuscular; in acute hypocalcaemia it takes the form of tetany, tingling, numbness, parasthaesia, even convulsions. While ...

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DISORDERS OF ACID-BASE BALANCE Plasma pH is normally 7.35-7.45 which represents a H+ concentration of 36-44 mmol/litre. The norm ...

First we have to know about the concept of anion gap which is the difference between plasma concentration of Na+ and the sum of ...