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• Clinical features ............................................................ 1- Usually, the patient gives history of the et ...

Metabolic hyponatremia • hyperkalemia • Respiratory acidosis .................................................... • Hypocalcae ...

Parameter Prerenal ATN Concentration of urine: Urine specific gravity > 1.020 < 1.010 Urine Osmolarity (mosm/lit)) > 50 ...

Ultrasonography safely assesses kidney size, shape and echo- genicity. Cortical thinning or oedema can sometimes be seen clearly ...

Equivocal case history. Renal signs suggesting glomerular, vascular or interstitial lesions. 3. Extrarenal manifestation in pat ...

Calcium channel blockers as verapamil and nifedipine. Vasodilating agents as dopamine in renal dose 1-2 ug/kg/min ATP-magnesium ...

c.c. should be added to the daily fluid intake. Fluid requirement will increase with the increase in the body surface area and t ...

6- Dialysis: The indications of dialysis in ARF are: a. Clinical: • Poor clinical state, nausea, confusion. Fluid overload, pul ...

(Fig. 4.2) MR urography shows bilateral hydroureteronephrosis in a patient with 4.8 mg/dl serum creatinine (IVU is not feasible) ...

CHRONIC RENAL FAILURE (CRF) DEFINITIONS: Chronic renal failure is a progressive loss of kidney functions due to progressive dama ...

Primary glomerular diseases: Such as idiopathic crescentic glomerulonephritis, primary focal segmental glomerulosclerosis and p ...

Chronic urinary tract infection Chronic urinary tract obstruction: This may be upper or lower urinary tract obstruction. It re ...

Diabetic nephropathy is one of the common causes of CFR. Analgesic nephropathy occurs with most of non-steroidal anti- inflammat ...

b- Stomach: Gastritis and sometimes gastric erosions may occur. This occurs due to the high concentration of urea in saliva and ...

b- Neuromuscular: The following are the common neuromuscular manifestations of uraemia: Flabbing tremors (asterixis) and proxim ...

CNS Malaise, lethergy • confusion Reversal of sleep rhythm • Convulsions and fits Coma Eye Redness of conuctiva • Calcification ...

III. Hematologic and cardiovascular Manifestations: a- Anaemia: Anaemia is a common feature of uraemia and is usually normocytic ...

Platelet aggregation is reduced and ADP release is inhibited leading to increased capillary fragility and prolongation of bleedi ...

Progressive increase in cardiac size on clinical examination and by plain X-ray. Echo cardiography shows that the increase is m ...

VI. Ocular manifestations: These include the following: Retinopathy. Uraemic amaurosis (rare): which is sudden transient loss o ...